Note: This article is a sequel. If you’re interested in the far reaching politics and events which preceded the Battle of Hastings, please read Part One first.
Approaching the Autumn of 1066, battle was imminent in England. Edward the Confessor had died without an heir. His closest Saxon relative, Edgar Ætheling, was too young and inexperienced to compete for the throne. The Witan had elected Harold Godwinson, the “Deputy King” as Edward called him, for his strength, connections and competence. But William Duke of Normandy felt slighted. Edward had apparently promised him the throne in the year 1051, and William had since obtained an oath of loyalty from Harold. Tensions in England seemed ripe for conflict.
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The Conqueror's Preparatons
William spent the beginning of the year rallying support from Norman nobles and obtaining a formal endorsement from the papacy. The church was in the middle of a reformation, and needed Norman support if it was to win its own battles. When William claimed that Harold had welched on a sacred oath of loyalty, Pope Alexander II immediately lent support. The church endorsed William’s claim so vigorously, his invasion could be considered something of a crusade. By the time William was ready to set sail for England, he could not only offer his fighters riches but salvation as well.
William's Invasion Fleet
One of William’s biggest supporters was his wife, Matilda of Flanders. She was rich in her own right and could materially expand on any moral support she offered. She gave him one of the largest vessels available for the times, the Mora. William had control of all the harbors stretching to Flanders and a small fleet of ships from his father’s time. But, to invade England, he needed more. He received ship donations from his nobles and began his own construction of a fleet of ships to add to the majesty of the Mora.
When he was ready to set sail, he had enough resources to carry seven to eight thousand men. He’d garnered enough support that these men consisted of knights, infantry, archers, and cavalry on horseback. It was an impressive feat, and all the while William worked under the encouraging light of Halley’s comet. It was generally believed to be a sign from God that victory was imminent.
Timing Was Everything
William had originally planned to set sail in the summer of 1066, but reportedly foul winds delayed his fleet’s departure. As it happened this would work in William’s favor. When the winds finally took a turn in the Autumn, they aligned perfectly with Harald Hardrada’s invasion of England.
Harald Hardrada's Attempt At the English Throne
Harald Hardrada was the Norwegian King at the time and had a tenuous claim to the English throne. This was based on a promise, not by Edward the Confessor but by Edward’s half brother, Harthacnut. Before Harthacnut died he told King Magnus of Norway that he would bequeath England to him. When Harthacnut did die, Edward the Confessor was in England and Magnus wasn’t. Ironically, Magnus was unable to invade Danish-run England because he was fighting the Danes. Many years passed and Magnus died, leaving the Norwegian throne to the famous mercenary Harald Hardrada. By the time 1065 rolled around, everyone had forgotten about Harthacnut’s promise to Magnus; everyone except Harold Godwinson’s brother, Tostig.
Tostig Godwinson's Involvement
Tostig was angry with his Brother. One of the problems Harold had to deal with as Deputy King were uprisings in Northumbria. This northern territory had been under Lord Tostig for only a year. The people wanted Tostig dead because of his harsh punishments, exorbitant taxation, and favoritism towards southern English nobility. Harold’s solution for this problem was to banish Tostig and try to regain the people’s trust.
Tostig went first to Flanders, a French state ruled by William’s in-laws. He gathered support and tried returning to England by force, as his family had done during Edward the Confessor’s time. This venture was unsuccessful, so he went on to Scotland and then to Norway. Once in Norway, he became a guest in King Harald Hardrada’s court. To dredge up more support, Tostig reminded Hardrada of his second-hand claim to the English throne. He also Assured him that the Northumbrians hated Harold and would support a Viking revival.
Armed with this knowledge, Harald Hardrada set about invading England from the north in early Autumn of 1066. Meanwhile, the winds brought William and his fleet from the south at almost exactly the same time.
Invasions From All Sides
Harold Godwinson and his battalion had been waiting for William on the shores of the southern border all summer. He was not, however, there to meet him in battle when William finally arrived on the 27th or 28th of September. If he had been, it may very well have changed the course of history.
At the time, England’s military forces were dictated by a Fyrd system. This meant the English militia consisted mainly of farmers and peasants on a rotational basis. They would be on duty for several months, then take several months off duty. This was so they could return home and tend to the all important industry of keeping their crops alive. Harold therefore disbanded his forces at the end of summer and retired to London. As soon as he did so, he received word of Hardrada’s surprise invasion. Worse yet, Hardrada had taken the commercial City of York in Northumbria on September 20th. Harold was an accomplished general and did not take this lightly. He immediately marched north via the Great North road, one hundred and ninety miles, to face this threat hastily. He sent messengers to collect troops to meet him as he went.
The Battle Of Stamford Bridge
Though beaten down by marching about twenty-five miles a day for a week, Harold and his men took no time to rest. They attacked the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on the 25th of September. Hardrada and his forces, tired from defeating Earls Edwin and Morcar’s armies, were taken off guard and unprepared. This fierce battle lasted several hours until Harold’s army made a decisive victory. This was quite a feat because Hardrada was considered one of the greatest mercenary warriors in the world at the time. He was killed in the fight along with Harold’s traitorous brother, Tostig. Harold allowed the surviving Norwegians, twenty-four ships worth out of the original three hundred ships, to return home on the condition that they never invade England again. This was a truce the Norwegians kept. Up to date, it was the last great viking raid on England in history.
Marching Back South
Harold could not rest and celebrate his great victory at Stamford Bridge. Judging from his victories over the Welsh and Hardrada, Harold usually took an offensive strategy against his opponents. His strategy against William of Normandy was no different. He left most of his exhausted militia behind, taking only his strongest forces south with him. They stopped in London for several days to gather more numbers and forged forward to Hastings. Hastings was where William had stationed his troops after landing unopposed in Pevensey. The strategy of rushing fiercely in had served Harold well his entire military career. However, marching back and forth, fighting Hardrada, then charging forward before adequately replenishing his forces was not advisable. Harold had everything to gain from waiting until his own troops were rejuvenated and letting William burn through his resources. But it was not in Harold’s character to do so.
In fact, some historians speculate that this was William’s plan all along – to wait. With the excuse of the winds, William had avoided invading until after Hardrada’s army had already tired the English. He’d fought alongside Harold before, in battles against Brittany on the continent, and knew Harold’s fighting style.
The Battle Of Hastings
Harold and his army of approximately five to seven thousand men reached a local landmark called the Hoar Apple Tree. It was so named for its aged, ash appearance. Legend has it, they rallied around this tree before taking a battle formation on the high ground on October 14th, 1066.
The Normans had strategically arranged themselves on an adjoining summit to counter Harold’s intended surprise arrival. By nine o’clock in the morning, the Normans were marching across the valley to meet the Saxons. This was significant because it took from Harold his planned surprise charge against his enemy. He was effectively forced to fight defensively rather than offensively. Still, he had a prime defensive position on the hill, tight knit, and blocking the road to London.
Where Harold’s army fell short was on their lack of rest. They were also levies with javelins and battle axes. William’s army had a larger number of professional knights on horseback and archers.
Battle Tactics
William advanced his army in three branches, leading the central group himself. He sent his infantry in first, followed by his cavalry knights on horseback. The infantry would have less success than the cavalry, who would be better able to cut down an elevated defensive line. But the tired Saxons held strong. In the confusion, the Normans saw William fall as his horse crumpled to the ground. This sent the infantry, followed by the cavalry, retreating back in fright. The Saxons were emboldened, and, against Harold’s orders, advanced down the hill after the fleeing Normans. The problem was, William had not died. His horse was injured and had fallen, giving the illusion that he’d been killed. Realizing his men needed morale, William lifted his helmet so they could see he was still very much alive.
At this point, the Saxons had broken their defensive line in order to chase after the retreating Normans and had not kept a consistent force forward. The encouraged Norman cavalry turned their horses and slaughtered the portion of the Saxon army that had charged down the hill after them. This tactic of feigning retreat was so successful, William utilized it at least two more times in the ensuing battle.
After Harold’s forces had been repeatedly weakened this way, William introduced his archers in cooperation with his cavalry. They aimed high in the sky, showering the hill defenders with arrows while the cavalry charged up the hill a final time. At this point, it’s believed that Harold was cut down and killed.
Harold's Defeat
According to the Bayeux Tapestry, Harold was shot through the eye with an arrow. He is pictured this way, before also shown to sustain an attack with a sword by a mounted knight. This however is in debate. Contemporary sources state that he was cut down by knights on the battlefield, which is corroborated by the tapestry. What is in question is whether or not he was shot in the eye. The Bayeux tapestry seems to have been restored some time in the nineteenth century, when the likeness of Harold is given this injury with lighter stitching that doesn’t match other stitched arrows of the tapestry. The rumor that he was disfigured by an arrow began in sources around the twelfth century, so restorers of the tapestry could have been following these later sources.
Regardless, there are significant accounts to support the fact that he was rendered unrecognizable due to decapitation and dismemberment. His body was said to have been identified by his long time lover, Edith Swanneck. Unfortunately, she and Harold’s mother were unable to bury Harold’s remains because William did not want the defeated king’s grave to become a monument for a cult following. At the time, rumors suggested that William had Harold buried secretly along the shoreline, but later accounts assert that he was laid to rest at Waltham Abbey.
Concluding Thoughts
Amazingly, the Battle of Hastings lasted over nine hours. This is extraordinarily longer than the average medieval battle which usually took only two hours to conclude. It’s a testament to how important this battle was for the future of England. The Saxon era was over and a new society was born. This England would go on to develop a rivalry with France, based on territorial lines, which lasted until the early modern era. It also was the birth of a new system- the early prototype of the constitutional monarchy. Whatever can be said of William’s right to rule or not, he did have a deep understanding of how to conquer a country, one that transcended the force of might. His kind of monarchy has been agile enough to last well into the 21st century, a feat few other systems have been able to accomplish.
Note: This article is a sequel. If you’re interested in the far reaching politics and events which preceded the Battle of Hastings, please read Part One.
Further Reading And Streaming...
“Changing Times, 1066-1500. [Pupil Book] : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming” by Collier, Martin et al.
“King Harold: The Rise and Fall of the Last Anglo Saxon King | Fact of Fiction | Absolute History.” YouTube, History Hit.
“Uncovering The Bayeux Tapestry,” documentary narrated by Professor Michael Lewis and Dr. Emily Ward. History Hit.
“William the Conqueror; the Norman Impact Upon England” by Douglas, David Charles.